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All Praise Is Not Created Equal: The Do's and Don't's of Praising Your Child

In 2003, Dr. Roy Baumeister, contracted by the Association for Psychological Science, review 200 self-esteem research studies concluding that there was no real correlation between having high self-esteem and increased academic or career performance, nor did it impact alcohol usage or one’s tendencies to be violent. In fact, further research indicated that when college students were doing poorly in a course, esteem-building praise resulted in causing their grades to decline even further.

Be Specific

However, this data does not suggest that all praise is unhealthy or detrimental to children’s success because a great majority of literature shows that praise can be an effective, positive, and motivating force. Po Bronson and Ashley Merryman, co-authors of the book NurtureShock: New Thinking About Children, find that “the effects of praise can vary significantly, depending on the praise given. To be effective, researchers have found, praise needs to be specific.” Hence, making sweeping statements of praise such as “You are so smart” or “You are so musically talented” do little to increase your child’s drive or success. Instead, Bronson and Merryman suggest that praise be doled out for specific incidents of achievement, “You really did amazing on your algebra test” or “I was impressed at how well you dribbled the ball towards the goal, practice is certainly paying off.” Your child will feel as if he or she is understood and valued as an individual with certain strengths and abilities, while developing a sense of accomplishment and pride in those particular aspects of their self.

Mean It

Your children have spent their lifetime studying your behaviors, speech patterns, facial expressions and values, don’t fool yourself into believing that your children can’t ‘hear’ or ‘see’ your true intentions (...continue reading...)

2-Year-Old Left at McDonald’s Overnight: Should parents be charged with neglect?

For the past day, amidst news reports and blogs covering Governor Walker’s Budget Bill and the Madison protests, one particular story seems to have captivated its audiences and caused a number of heated debates. The story: A 2-year-old forgotten overnight at Milwaukee area McDonald’s. According to Jennifer Tomazic of CBS58 News:

"Milwaukee Police say at least 10 kids and adults were dining at the McDonald's at Potter and Kinnikinnick Sunday afternoon and the toddler was apparently left there.
When the family got home, police say all the kids scattered and went to bed an no one noticed the little girl wasn't there.
It wasn't until Monday morning when the 2-year-old's aunt saw her picture on television that she alerted the girl's mother that she was missing."

As of this morning, the child remains in custody of the Bureau of Milwaukee Child Welfare as workers investigate her parents and the circumstances surrounding this incident.

The Debate: Are the parents guilty of neglect? With strong opinions on both sides, respondents have expressed their recommendations for the future of the 2-year-old girl. Ranging from an immediate termination of parental rights to more empathetic responses excusing the parent’s oversight.

A quick Internet search will surely uncover a plethora of cases in which parents were charged with neglect after leaving their toddlers unattended or alone for a period of time. However, a notable difference is, that the majority of those toddlers were either left intentionally or those incidents tragically ended in the child’s death. Clearly those factors differ greatly from this particular case, as it would appear that the child was allegedly left by mistake, there are no prior indications of abuse, and the child was not harmed as result of her parent’s carelessness.

A Review of Negligence Law. According to Federal law, negligence of a child is defined as a failure to use ordinary care either by act or omission, or failing to exercise the amount of care that a reasonably

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International Women's Day: Celebrating Womankind for 100 Years

Press Release: International Women's Day

2011 International Women's Day Theme:

Equal access to education, training and science and technology: Pathway to decent work for women

The first International Women’s Day events were run in Austria, Denmark, Germany and Switzerland in 1911 and attended by over one million people. 100 years on, International Women’s Day (IWD) has become a global mainstream phenomena celebrated across many countries and is an official holiday in approximately 25 countries including Afghanistan, Russia, Ukraine, Vietnam and Zambia.

Every year, we see extensive global women’s activity on March 8th. This year, performer and social activist, Annie Lennox, will lead a mass march across London’s Millennium Bridge for charity. In Washington D.C. over a thousand people will descend on Capitol Hill demanding a better world for millions of marginalized women and girls around the globe. A major international businesswomen’s conference will be hosted in Sydney, Australia. Schools and governments around the world

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Sheboygan man charged with stalking: No longer just a crime of the famous

Steven J. David, a 53-year-old Walworth man, was arrested in Sheboygan County today, for allegedy stalking his ex-girlfriend over a period of 2 years. If convicted of felony stalking, David could face up to 18 months in prison (Sheboygan Press, 2011).

According to the criminal complaint:

The complainent, a 36-year-old Sheboygan County woman, informed police that she had worked for David in 2007. In 2008, the two began dating; in February, 2009 the two began to have problems according to the woman. Apparently David felt that she wasn’t spending enough time with him and therefore began showing up unexpectedly. Allegedly, David’s unwanted appearances even prompted the woman’s college to ban him from the campus.

In April 2009, the woman states that she attempted to end the relationship with David and in June 2009 sent a certified letter requesting that he have no further contact with her or her family; and when he continued to persue her, she obtained a temporary restraining order in August 2009. However David did not respect her requests and in the months followed showed up at her work; followed her numerous times; informed her that he had a private investigator following her; drove past her home repeatedly; and filed a civil lawsuit against her, claiming that she owed him money.

What is Stalking?

While many are familiar with the term “stalking,” this intrusive behavior was not considered criminal until the 1990’s. Passed initially in the state of California, this crime was associated most often with obsessed fans that would follow and harass the famous movie stars. Today, it has been reported that 1 in 12 women, and 1 in 45 men, find themselves victims of a stalker.

According to Petrocelli (2007), “like many other crimes

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Why Does She Stay? Helping the Victim of Domestic Abuse

Domestic abuse victims are often asked, “So if you or your children were being abused, then why did you stay?” Although this may seem like a relevant question, it places unjust blame on the victim.

And to this question, the victim's only response is “I don’t know. I just never thought it would get this bad. I believed him when he apologized and promised to never lose his temper again.”

But the abuser does do it again, and again, and again. Those of us who are on 'the outside, looking in' seem to have the ability to predict that the abuser will inevitably strike again… so why can’t she (victim)? Individuals who have never experienced domestic abuse often are likely to suggest a plethora of flawed reasonings for why she would stay, i.e. she likes being abused; she’s too stupid to leave; she’s probably exaggerating the abuse; maybe she instigates it, et. But clearly none of these reasons are correct.

The truth is, Domestic Abuse Victims Unconsciously Stay With Their Abuser because they:

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Education is Key to Preventing Teen Dating Violence: Free Online Resources

While National Teen Dating Violence and Prevention Month has ended, the continued prevalence of teens experiencing abuse with their relationships clearly demonstrates that there remains an ongoing need for continued education and resources.

The Facts: Teen Dating Violence

• Teen dating violence includes physical, sexual, and emotional abuse;
• Studies find that girls as young as 11 years old report being victimized by a potential partner;
• One study finds: 96% of teenagers have been emotionally or psychologically abused by a partner;
• 33% of teens report that they have been physically assaulted by a partner;
• 1 in 11 high school teens report having been forced to have sexual intercourse SafeYouth.org;
• 25% of teen respondents say that they have been called harassed, controlled, threatened, called names or put down by their partner through texting or cellular phone;
• One in four tweens (24%) say dating violence-physically hurting relationship partners-is a serious problem for their age (Liz Clairborne, Inc/Teen Research Unlimited, 2007).

Young girls in particular, are reporting increased levels of abuse within their relationships. Sadly,

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10 Early Warning Signs: Identifying the Future Abuser

Teens have increasing reported that they are now or have already been in an abusive relationship. Like their adult counterparts, teen abusers may have certain behavioral traits that serve as warning signs of their potential to become abusive. While it is rare that an abuser will allow himself to exhibit these behaviors in the beginning stages of a relationship, abusers are incapable of maintaining allover control of their abusive personality traits long-term. As the abuser becomes more secure in their relationship, their unhealthy behaviors will increasingly present themselves.

In hindsight, most victims report that they had noticed warning signs that indicated their abuser increasing anger, and/or controlling, possessive, or jealous behavior; but regrettably they ignored or excused such behaviors. Akin to domestic violence, teen-dating abuse is defined as a pattern of abusive behaviors employed to control another person. Teen abusers tend to be extremely possessive and jealous, attempt to manipulate their victims by making all the decisions, make constant demeaning and/or devaluing comments which cause their partner to question her abilities and beliefs, and essentially hold their victim emotionally hostage by threatening to kill themselves, stalking, threats of violence, or by forcing intimacy.

It is important that you acknowledge any fears or concerns regarding your partner’s unhealthy behaviors. In fact, it is not enough just to know the warning signs of an abusive personality, but you must take action when something feels uncomfortable or “not right” to ensure your personal safety. Do not discount the power of your instincts, these suspicious feelings serve as your internal warning alarm, and they have kept you safe thus far. Do not seek alternative causes for your concerns or attempt to debunk or diminish your fears regarding his abusive behaviors; we already know that the level of violence and abuse will only continue to escalate over time. Recognize that you are feeling wary and fearful of your partner, also that patterns of abuse indicate that aggression will only increase, and that your intuition is warning you that you are in real danger. Learn the following behavioral traits of an abuser to protect yourself.

EARLY WARNING SIGN #1: COMMITMENT DRIVEN. This abuser claims to have fallen “heads over heels in love” with you, suggests it was “love at first site,” and believes you are soul mates. They will likely compare you to their ex’s, claiming that they have never felt so at comfortable, so “right,” or that they have never loved anyone as much as they love you. These individuals may propose....

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Does Mr. Right Have Abusive Personality Traits? Predicting Future Abuse Continue reading on Examiner.com: Does Mr. Right Have an Abusive Personality

February is National Teen Dating Violence Awareness and Prevention Month. In the past decades reports of dating violence have increased exponentially, suggesting that this is both a social and public health concern. While the majority of research to date has exclusively targeted adult respondents, recent studies have also found that teen dating violence poses a significant problem due to its shocking prevalence, its harmful physical and mental health effects, and also because these unhealthy relationships occur at a developmental life stage in which romantic relationships are first experienced and interactional patterns are learned and used to gauge all future relationships, thus often carrying over into adulthood.

Teen Misconception. While the abuses of teen dating violence can range from emotional, mental and verbal abuse, to physical assaults, rape and even murder, one thing is certain, abusive teen relationships follow the same patterns of adult domestic violence. Similarly, teen abusers display characteristics

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Teen Dating Violence Facts

A shocking number of teenage girls report that they are or have been controlled by their boyfriend, an epidemic that appears to be occurring to tweens as young as 11 years old. In fact, studies indicate that 1 in 3 high school students report having been involved in an abusive relationship, of which: 32% experienced emotional abuse and 12% reported being a victim of physical violence within the past 18 months (Halpern, Oslak, Young, Martin, & Kupper, 2001).

Teen Dating Violence Defined by Violence Against Women Online Resources

Teen dating violence, also referred to as dating violence or teen intimate partner violence, is violence committed by a person who is in, wants to be in or has been in a social relationship of a romantic or intimate nature with the victim. It occurs in both opposite- and same-sex relationships, between non-cohabitating, and sometimes cohabitating, partners. Dating violence which occurs between the ages of 11 and 14 is often referred to as "tween" dating violence. Teen dating violence includes physical, sexual, and emotional abuse.

A Hidden Crime. According to (Click here to continue reading this article: Teen Dating Violence Facts - Milwaukee Domestic Violence & Abuse | Examiner.com)

Teens in abusive relationships: February awareness campaign

The teenage years are especially challenging and difficult. Teens are bombarded with expectations and pressures from parents, peers, teachers, employers, and dating partners but have yet acquired the tools to manage these demands. Unfortunately, we know that these “tools” can only learned through supportive guidance, experience, and trial and error.

Teens report feeling the most pressure from dating relationships. Sadly, statistics indicate that many teens experience unhealthy and abusive relationships. A study conducted by SafeYouth.org, found that as many as 96% of teenagers reported that a partner had either emotionally or psychologically abused them. Another study (click here to continue reading this article: Teens in abusive relationships: February awareness campaign - Milwaukee Domestic Violence & Abuse).

Discipline or child abuse: Differences of opinion

Can you determine the difference between discipline and abuse?

How would you determine the following parents’ acts, do you view them as a means of discipline or as abusive?

- Last week, a 10-year-old boy arrived to his elementary class with bruises on his face. When his teacher asked the boy how he got these bruises, he informed her that he had been hit by a live-in relative for violating the family rules. Later that day, the male relative was taken into custody, arrested on suspicion of child abuse (Times-Press, 2011).

- This past Christmas Eve, a Mukwongo father, Jeffrey Gleiss, rolled his car after missing a turn on state Highway 83; his 5-year-old son was inside the car at the time of the accident. When police arrived on the scene it was immediately noted that Gleiss smelt of liquor, was unsteady, and was slurring his speech. He was charged with his sixth drunken driving offense and since a judge has granted a child abuse restraining order against him for endangering his child (WISN, 2011).

- This past November, an 11-year-old, alleged sexual abuse victim, disclosed that she had been severely punished after reporting her assault. According to the girl’s therapist, the mother had made her daughter kneel on popcorn kernels, limited her diet, and threatened to beat her daughter for reporting her sexual assault. The 32-year-old mother was charged with causing mental harm to a child, intimidation of a victim and child abuse (The Post Crescent, 2010).

At what point do well-intentioned child rearing practices turn into malicious acts against a child?
Unfortunately there is little agreement across the nations, disciplines, and even amount similarly-minded individuals regarding this issue. In the recent years...... click here to read the rest of the story

Sticks and stones may break my bones: No Name-Calling Week debunking this myth Continue reading on Examiner.com: Sticks and stones may break my bones

“Sticks and stones may break my bones, but names will never hurt me.” As children, many a well-intended adult attempted to soothe our tears with this rhyme; but even then we knew that it wasn’t true. Words hurt and in fact, they hurt a lot! For centuries, the long-lasting, physical and emotional effects of bullying have been grossly underestimated, but several new studies finally expose the damage that these verbal assaults cause.

In one such study, “Empathy Gaps for Social Pain: Why People Underestimate the Pain of Social Suffering” currently featured in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (2011), it was found that most people fail to realize the consequences of social trauma ...... click here for the rest of the story

October is Domestic Violence Month

Friday, October 1st marked the beginning of the 23rd commemoration of National Domestic Violence Awareness Month (NDVAM). Across the Nation, domestic violence advocates, agencies, survivors, and concerned citizens will participate in educational programs and fundraising events in an effort to raise awareness of the prevalence and effects of domestic abuse, to impress the need for prevention, and to remember those who have been victimized by abuse.

To read the rest of the article, click here

Self Efficacy and Motivation

Self efficacy and motivation are intrinsically related in that one cannot exist without the other. Self-efficacy, as defined by Burger (1997) is “the belief that one can have an impact on their environment,” (p. 416). The individual, being high in self-efficacy, believes that they can have control and influence over their environment and their behavior, in essence they purport that if they do something, there is a high chance that they will succeed.

Motivation is related to believes of self-efficacy in that, the individual will not be inclined, or motivated, to act, make a change, or respond, if he or she does not feel that they are likely to achieve their desired results. Therefore, the relation that exists between these two is likely to be seen as: one who is high in self-efficacy is also likely to be highly motivated, vise versa, the individual who lacks self-efficacy has little motivation to change.

When utilizing these ideas in the counseling process, it is important to understand that the client is unlikely to work unless the client believes that it will. Therefore, unless the client perceived counseling as helpful and expects a positive outcome, i.e. self-efficacy, they will not be appropriately engaged in or motivated throughout the process.

Those who subscribe to the behaviorists model would likely fail to consider the underlying motivates or past experiences that have caused a lack of self-efficacy or motivation, as little time is spent trying to uncover the true cause of the client’s issue (Burger, 1997). Instead the behaviorist would begin to work with the client in changing the behaviors from the here and now. Additionally, behaviorists believe that self-efficacy is influenced by environment, rather than intrinsically, and therefore will vary from one environment to the next (Pervin, Cervone & Oliver, 2005). Therefore, if a client presents with a lack of motivation to find a job because he or she fears that they would never be called for an interview, the behaviorist would begin working on this issue directly, not analyzing his or her past experiences with interviewing. The behaviorist would insist on changing the client’s environment for submitting an application or resume, eg. via Internet instead of in-person, or even changing the job or area of the state where the client applies to. This is can also be effective when working with clients in a domestic abuse shelter, the population this writer currently serves. Often the women report feeling stigmatized by their past experiences, believing that everyone knows who they are, that they have been abused, and judge them as being weak and helpless. Because of this perception, the women feel that they will not succeed in their own apartments in the same city or in jobs related to their previous work. However, they own feel more positively about moving out of their previous city or in obtaining employment in an area different than their previous work. While the counselors are aware of the client’s past, this becomes irrelevant when working with them to increase their self-efficacy, motivating them to find housing and employment, and eventually assisting them in becoming independent again.

Conversely, the social-cognitive counselor believes that self-efficacy is intrinsic and influenced by past experiences, social settings, and behaviors (Pervin, Cervone & Oliver, 2005). Additionally, social-cognitive counselors go into the past in an effort to understand the client’s perceptions and work towards increasing both their self-efficacy and motivation. For the social-cognitivist, the client is only motivated to achieve things that are important to them and they believe that they can successfully attain. Therefore, when working with the client fearful of applying for jobs, the counselor would explore the client’s desire for obtaining a new job, and then also reflect on past experiences where the client did succeed in achieving something that he or she set out to get. Additionally, when working with abuse survivors, the counselor would focus on the client’s desire to become independent of the abuser, additionally set to prove that she is worthy and capable, and also stress the strength that she has in surviving the abuser and also in getting out of the relationship. All these processes would be designed to increase motivation assure that the client is doing that which she really wants to do, and elevating her sense of self-efficacy.

Stephanie Lowrance-Henckel

References

Burger, J.M. (1997). Personality. Brooks/Cole Publishing, Pacific Grove, CA.Pervin, L., Cervone, D., & Oliver, J. (2005). Theories of Personality (9th ed.).New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc

Construct of Self-Esteem, Defined by Trait Theorists

Researchers of human personality have been able to identify five major trait dimensions, known as the “Big Five,” (Hood & Johnson, 2007). These “Big Five” are considered the “basic trait factors that are supposed to capture the gamut of meanings of personality characteristics,” (De Radd, 113). These five personality factors are: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. During the same time, much research has been conducted on the causes, effects, and adaptability of self-esteem, but rarely have the two measures been compared.

In an effort to compare the two measures, Robins, Tracy, Trzesniewski, Potter, and Gosling, (2001) purport that “self-esteem and personality are likely to share common developmental roots, and examining the personality correlates of self-esteem across the life span might provide insights into the nature of self-esteem and its development,” (p. 464). Additionally, it is believed that personality and self-esteem may have a direct impact on each other, whereas one’s personality may directly influence how they perceive themselves or conversely one’s belief about themselves may influence how they behave. Given these possible correlations, one could find that a person who struggles with low self-esteem “might lack the self-confidence to engage in a wide range of social behaviors and, consequently, become more introverted,” (p. 465) while those with high self-esteem “tend to be Extraverted, Agreeable, Conscientious, Emotionally Stable, and Open to Experience,” (p. 476).

In assessing the possible correlation between personality and self-esteem, the use of the five-factor model can be helpful. Individuals who struggle with low self-esteem often report feeling worried, insecure, inadequate, characteristics that would result in high scores of Neuroticism. Additionally, these clients will often engage in task-oriented behaviors (low scorer of extraversion), which are organized, scrupulous, and neat (high scorer of conscientiousness) all in an effort to prove their worthiness and receive praise from others for a job well done. Clients with low self-esteem rarely do things for themselves, but are constantly acting for the benefit of others, often going above and beyond the call of duty.

Clients who demonstrate these behaviors are often aware of their lack of self-esteem. They actively engage in people pleasing behaviors in an effort to satisfy their own need for love, worth, and attention. Personality theorists would suggest that the client first recognize these behaviors which are enacted solely for the purpose of proving one’s self worth and then begin to assist the client in altering these maladaptive behaviors into one’s that were more self-serving in nature. The goal in this type of treatment would be to alter the client’s behaviors thus gaining more healthy personality traits, which would eventually result in a higher perception of self-worth.

Stephanie Lowrance-Henckel

References

De Raad, B. (1998). Five big, big five issues: Rationale, content, structure, status, and cross-cultural assessment. European Psychologist, 3(2), 113-124
Hood, A. B., & Johnson, R. W. (2007). Assessment in counseling: A guide to the use of psychological assessment procedures (4th ed.). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.
Pervin, L., Cervone, D., & Oliver, J. (2005). Theories of Personality (9th ed.).New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, IncRobins, R.W., Tracy, J.L., Trzesniewski, K., Potter, J. & Gosling, S.D. (2001). Personality correlates of self-esteem. Journal of Research in Personality, 35, 463-482.

Self-Esteem of the Abused, A Person-Centered Approach

Rogerian theory, otherwise known as the person-centered therapy, is both non-directive and humanistic in its approach. It contends that the client is the expert of their self and experiences, and is innately good and driven toward the fulfillment of goals (Burger, 1997). Furthermore, this theory proposes that through the practice of interacting with an empathetic, congruent, and genuine counselor, that the client can achieve full actualization Pervin, Cervone & Oliver, 2005).

In regards to one’s self, Roger’s believed that individuals maintain a fairly consistent sense of self-worth or self-esteem (Pervin, Cervone & Oliver, 2005). However, others argued this assumption, finding greater fluctuations in self-esteem than originally proposed, Burger (1997) summarizes that “very few people feel entirely good or bad about themselves,” (p. 373). The concept of unconditional love and positive regard seem to be a consistent theme surrounding the person-centered approach. Roger’s has found that clients move easily towards full actualization when counseled in an empathetic, understanding manner abundant in unconditional love. Therefore, if this component is essential to the therapeutic process, and progress is made when this is introduced, it stands to reason that the problems one faces in the outside world result from a lack of such love and understanding.

The goal of Roger’s theory is to assist the client in accepting and appreciating themselves for who they are and chose to become (Burger, 1997). Hence the therapeutic process should introduce the concept of unconditional love, first by the hands of the counselor who serves as a model, so that the client to eventually learn and be able to accept him or herself unconditionally. Person-centered theorist believe that this move to personal acceptance and unconditional love is possible because all persons are both active and self-actualizing. Therefore, as one moves through the self-actualizing and acceptance process, they seek to maintain a congruence between self and experience"(Pervin, Cervone, & Oliver, 185).

While this writer does not subscribe to the person-centered approach, she can see value in Roger’s assumptions of the “self,” and believes that his goals are congruent with many other models. Currently, this writer works with women who have been victims of domestic abuse and finds that many of them struggle with issues of low self-esteem. Some of the reoccurring themes of her group is to examine one’s self, take responsibility for the things that can be changed (letting go of others), and to assist in dispelling the myth that the women are only as good (or bad) as their experiences (as many women label themselves as helpless, hopeless, victims). The writer is always empathetic, understanding, and genuine when working with her clients. She herself has spent countless hours assessing and reassessing her self-concept to ensure congruence, and uses her personal experience to move her clients through this process. She believes that low self-esteem contributes greatly to their feelings of being “stuck,” helpless, and hopeless. Furthermore, as long as the client internalizes these feelings, they will be unable to process their traumas and successfully move forward in their goals.

Stephanie Lowrance-Henckel

References

Burger, J.M. (1997). Personality. Brooks/Cole Publishing, Pacific Grove, CA.
Pervin, L., Cervone, D., & Oliver, J. (2005). Theories of Personality (9th ed.).New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Self-Esteem of the Abused, According to Freud

The need for positive self-regard is universal, across cultures, but the definition and conditions for which one may view themselves positively can individually vary (Heine, Lehman, Markus& Kitayama, 1999). Given this assumption, it would be fair to suppose that people then are aspire to acquire, develop, and maintain positive self-views, thereby consciously or unconsciously seeking positive self-regard (Heine, Lehman, Markus& Kitayama, 1999). Crocker and Wolfe (2001) summarize that most of human behavior is motivated by the need to maintain high levels of self-esteem.

Freud believed that within each person’s subconscious lie the three personality structures; the id, ego, and superego (Pervin, Cervone& Oliver, 2005). The Id operates according the pleasure principal, seeking to fullfill one’s basic wants and needs, seeking out pleasure and avoiding pain. In direct contrast to the Id, is the Superego. The superego, as defined by Freud, is the moral reasoning, regulating, perfection-seeking, and functions to control the unbridled Id desires. And finally the ego, seeks to monitor both the Id and Superego, and find a balance between the Id’s unbridled desires and the Superego’s extreme moral reasoning and behavior modification. According to Pervin, Cervone and Oliver (2005), “the ego’s function is to express and satsify the desires of the id in accordance with two things: opportunites and constraints that exist in the real world, and the demands of the superego,” (p.89).

When analyzing Freud’s theory and it’s contection with self-esteem, one would assume that the desire for positive self-esteem and self-regard would be housed in both the id and especially the superego. The id, seeking out pleasure would strive to acquire praise and affection for a “job well done.” Additionally, the superego, being rooted in the need for absolute perfectionism would focus it’s efforts on obtaining the ideal moral self, which when achieved would also correlate with a positive self-esteem. Freud (1941) reported that “one part of self-regard is primary – the residue of infantile narcissism; another part arises out of the omnipotence which is corroborated by experience (the fulfillment of the ego ideal), whilst a third part proceeds from the satsifaction of object-libido,” (p.100).

Low self-esteem would then be accounted for as an imbalance of the id and superego desires and pathways to acheivement. In the basic sense, the id would at all costs, seek to obtain self-esteem by ways of obtaining immediate please; stealing to acquire material possessions, cheating on a test to receive a high grade, or hurting another for their own benefit. In stark contrast, the superego would find more moral means to achieving postive self-esteem, i.e. helping others in need even when there is no direct compensation, studying for a test in lue of other more pleasurable activites, or working hard toward a goal with the intent of succeeding. In consequence then, the ego must reason or find a balance between the two, the id and the superego, the find a congruent path. However, in the cases when the ego regulates for these two desires, but is unable to motivate the individual into behaving toward the fullfillment of the goals, the person begins to feel lower self-esteem.

As previously noted, this writer primarily works with women and children who have been victimized by domestic violence. As a means to relating Freud’s concept of low self-esteem to a specific population, she will use this client base for illustration. Many of the victims of domestic abuse are also mothers, and as result consider their children’s welfare when making any decisions as to whether they should remain in the relationship or leave their abuser. Using Freud’s personality structures and their motivating forces, one would suppose that all, the id, ego, and superego, would desire to leave the abuser, however their means will be very different. The victim’s id would suggest that she kill her abuser, therefore receiving immediate pleasure and safety in knowing that he can never hurt her again. In contrast, the superego would desire methods that would maintain the relationship between the parents, rehabilitate the abuser, and allow for the client to maintain her same standard of living. Given the two different paths of the id and the superego, the ego is left to negotiate the best course of action. Unfortuantely, the two methods are so extreme, that the ego cannot find the proper course, and therefore does nothing, but instead allows for the victim to remain stagnent. After a long period of time, where nothing changes and the abuse continues without action, the victim begins to harbor feelings of low self-esteem and poor self-regard, because she is unable to take the steps necessary to protect both herself and her children.

Stephanie Lowrance-Henckel

References

Crocker, J., & Wolfe, C. (2001). Contingencies of worth. Psychological Review, 108, 593–623.
Freud, S. (1914c). On narcissism: An introduction, 14: 67-102.
Heine, S.J., Lehman, D.R., Markus, H.R. & Kitayama, S. (1999). Is there a universal need for positive self-regard? Psychological Review, 106(4), 766-794.
Pervin, L., Cervone, D. & Oliver, J. (2005). Theories of Personality (9th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. Hoboken, NJ.

Pathology and It’s Origins – Multifaceted?

Finding the root cause of a pathology can be difficult and the emphasis is largely determined by the theorectical approach of the counselor. Currently, most counselors tend to believe that psychopatholgies and/or mental illnesses are multifaceted (Davidson, Neale & Kring, 2004), caused by both biological and external factors, but this was not always the case. Some of the earliest accounts of abnormal behavior or pathology can be found in written in the teaching of the bible (Mark 5:8-13). It is here that we are first introduced to the belief that pathology is caused by possession, as Christ cures a man by casting out the devil spirits that haunt him. Later, during the Greek and Roman civilizations, a more biological view to pathology begins to emerge. It is during this time that the Greek philospher, Hippocrates purposes that mental illness is caused by an imbalance of fluids, or humours, in the body, and therefore suggests that the cure to abnormal behavior is a simiply a change in diet (Hansell & Damour, 2005). Eventually, theorists began to debate the influences of nurture and nature as it applies to the development of disorders. Freud’s psychoanalytical approach purposes that disorders were caused by imbalances of the Id, Ego, and Superego, or in a lack of fulfillment of one’s sexual drive, thus viewing individuals as innately dysfunctional (Ziegler, 2002). The phenomenological approach believes that all humans are born basically good and have the potential to become full-functioning, goal-oriented (Burger, 1997), experts of their life and experiences, and capable of change. However, while the phenomenological approach emphasizes the importance of one’s “self,” it also considers the influence of external influences, or nurture, as playing a role in one’s personality formation (Ziegler, 2002). Traits theorists purport that nature and nurture play a significant role in one’s mental health. In fact, Eysenck “was one of the first personality psychologists to explore in detail the biological basis of personality traits,” (Pervin, Cervone & Oliver, 2005, p. 243) finding that individual differences were caused by both hereditary and environmental factors. And in a final contrast, Social-Cognitivists such as Ellis and Beck, find that environmental influences and past experience play a significant role in the development of one’s self-concept and world schemas. They emphasize learned behaviors and modeling as a means for developing and altering one’s perceptions, beliefs, and behaviors, maladaptive or otherwise.

Unfortunately, this writer can see merit in almost all of these theories. She views most pathologies as being complex, created by a combination of biological and environmental factors. She purports that presenting symptoms are often a result of other psychosocial issues and are thus intertwined with psychological domains such as thinking, feeling, and acting and the social domains of work, friendship, and intimate relationships. It has been shown that biology has a significant role “in the development of many mental disorders, including Schizophrenia, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders, Dementia of the Alzheimer’s type, and most Mood Disorders” (Seligman, 2005, p. 52). Pervin, Cervone and Oliver (2005) also summarize psychopathology “as arising from distorted, incorrect, maladaptive cognitions concerning the self, others, and events in the world. Different forms of pathology are viewed as resulting from different cognitions or ways of processing information” (p. 322). Further, it is the contention of social-cognitivists that, people do what they learn, and act in ways that work. Pathologies can also arise as result of inner cognitive thoughts. Ewen (2003), quotes Bandura (1986), “many human dysfunctions and ensuing torments stem from problems of thought. This is because, in their thoughts, people often dwell on painful pasts and on perturbing futures of their own invention…. They drive themselves to despondency by harsh self-evaluation… And they often act on misconceptions that get them into trouble” (p. 376). And a final contention, according to social-cognitive theory is that “maladaptive behavior results from dysfunctional learning” (Pervin, Cervone & Oliver, 2005, p. 328). It is this learner’s belief that all the above influences act together is the formation of pathology, and while a single influence, even in the case of biological factors, could cause one to develop a mental illness, it is quite unlikely. Instead, she contends that while a predisposition for mental illness may exist, onset may often be exacerbated by one or more maladaptive social, cultural, or trauma related experiences; areas that must be explored throughout treatment.

Stephanie Lowrance-Henckel

References

Burger, J.M. (1997). Personality. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing.
Davidson, G.C., Neale, J.M., & Kring, A.M. (2004). Abnormal Psychology (9th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc
Ewen, R.B. (2003). An Introduction to Theories of Personality (6th ed.). Mahwah, New Jersey; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hansell, J. & Damour, L. (2005). Abnormal Psychology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc
Pervin, L., Cervone, D., & Oliver, J. (2005). Theories of Personality (9th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Seligman, L. (2005). Principals of psychopathology: Diagnosis and treatment. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Ziegler, D.J. (2000). Basis assumptions concerning human nature underlying rational emotive behavior therapy (Rebt) personality theory. Journal of Rational – Emotive & Cognitive – Behavior Therapy, 18(2), 67-85.

Elderly Clients & the Competent Counselor

When working with elderly....

What type of specialized training might counselors need to address the clinical needs of elderly clients?

Counselors who chose to work with the elderly population must have significant knowledge of their specific issues, experiences, and concerns. Often times, when the elderly are referred to a professional in the human services field, they are struggling with emotional, psychological, or physical issues. Depression is of major concern among this age group. “Community studies have shown that 25% of elderly persons report having depressive symptoms” (Raj, para.3), additionally confirmed by Shirmbeck (2006), with high rates of occurrence (36% to 46%) among those hospitalized (Teresi & Holmes, 2001). According to Erik Erikson’s seven stages of human development, elderly individuals would find themselves dealing with the psychosocial crisis of ego integrity vs. despair. It is during this stage that the individual evaluates his or her life, accomplishments, and fears. Individuals who fear their own death, feel abandoned or lost due to the loss of loved ones, are experiencing chronic or terminal illness, or feel they have lost the ability to be self-sufficient can find themselves engulfed in a state of despair. For these individuals, it could be helpful to complete a life review. As, Lewis (2001) finds, “The life review is one counseling intervention which has been empirically shown to be useful with older adults” (234).

There are many facets to the life review, each which could provide positive results to the individual, especially so when the review is focused on the relationship to spirituality. During the life review process, the individual recalls, evaluates, and then reintegrates their memories developing a holistic view of their self-concept. “The life review has the primary purpose of helping the older client find integrity” (Lewis, 234).

Pervin, Cervone and Oliver (2005) find that through the progression of Erikson’s stages, some individuals are capable of developing a “sense of intimacy, an acceptance of life’s successes and disappointments, and a sense of continuity throughout the life cycle,” (p. 111) a progression that leads to integrity stage in later life. However, “other people remain isolates from family and friends, appear to survive on a fixed daily routine, and focus on both past disappointments and future death,” (p. 111) and are likely to find themselves rooted in despair. Pervin, Cervone and Oliver (2005) further suggests that the resulting personality, and final stage, may have it’s roots in a childhood conflict, “this is not always the case and that they have a significance of their own,” (p.112). In either case, it would be beneficial if the counselor were prepared to work through a life review with the elder client in an attempt to resolve the psychosocial crisis’ that might be preventing them from entering into the integrity stage.

What specific clinical skill sets may be needed?

Those who chose to work with the elderly population will likely be presented with a plethora of issues outside of that which brought the client initially into treatment. Due to the age of the client, the counselor will need to be aware not only of mental and emotional conditions but also those which may be of physical concern. Additionally, issues related to cognition may make the therapeutic process more difficult. There are two main forms of cognition, crystallized and fluid intelligence. Crystallized intelligence is one area of cognition that is often found to increase with age. Crystallized intelligence is defined by VanderZanden, Crandell & Crandell (2007) as “the ability to use knowledge that was acquired earlier in life on later occasions. Crystallized intelligence often shows an increase with age” (p. G-3). Furthermore, it has been shown that one’s knowledge base not only remains intact but also continues to grow throughout most of adulthood, only to start declining after age 65 (Cavanuagh & Blanchard-Fields, 2006). A second area of cognition is classified as Fluid Intelligence, which is defined as our "on-the-spot reasoning ability, a skill not basically dependent on our experience." (Belsky, 1990, p. 125). And unlike crystallized intelligence, fluid intelligence tends to peak in young adulthood, only to begin declining if not regularly used and practiced (Cavanaugh and Blanchard-Fields , 2006). Given this understanding of intelligence process, it is likely that elderly clients will have difficulty processing new concepts, and therefore the counselor will have to maintain patience and understanding when working with this population.

Unfortunately, this learner has little hands-on experience with the elderly population. Her only direct contact with individuals over the age of 65 is that of her husband’s grandmother, as her own grandparents are no longer living. Additionally, her future career goals tend to isolate this population, i.e. working with children and adolscents, and therefore she has failed to give this population much consideration throughout her research process, until now. She does look forward though to gaining a better understanding of this type of client, regardless if she never ends up working directly with the elderly in a professional setting.

Stephanie Lowrance-Henckel

References

Belsky, J. K. (1990). The psychology of aging theory, research, and interventions. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.Berger, K.S. (2000). The developing person. New York, NY: Worth Publishers.
Burger, J.M. (1997). Personality. Brooks/Cole Publishing, Pacific Grove, CA.
Cavanaugh, J. & Blanchard-Fields, F. (2006). Adult development and aging (5th ed.) Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing/Thomson Learning.
Krebs-Carter, M. (2007). Ages in stages: An exploration of the life cycle based on erik erikson’s eight stages of human development. Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute. Retrieved on February 12, 2009, from http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1980/1/80.01.04.x.html#d
Lewis, M. (2001). Spirituality, counseling, and elderly: An introduction to the spiritual life review. Journal of Adult Development. 8(4). 231-240
Myers, R. (2007). Stages of social-emotional development in children and teenagers. Child Development Institute. Retrieved on February 12, 2009, from http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/erickson.shtml
Niolon, R. (2007). Erickon's Psychosocial Stages of Development. Resources for students and professionals. Retrieved on February 12, 2009, from http://www.psychpage.com/learning/library/person/erikson.html
Pervin, L., Cervone, D., & Oliver, J. (2005). Theories of Personality (9th ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Raj, A. (2004). Depression in the elderly: Tailoring medical therapy to their special needs. Postgraduate Medicine Online. 115(6). Retrieved on February 12, 2009, from http://www.postgradmed.com/issues/2004/06_04/raj.htm
Shirmbeck, P. (Speaker). (2006). Elder Issues [Podcast Recording No. CAS038]. Kent, OH: CounselorAudioSource.net. Retrieved February 12, 2009, from http://www.counseloraudiosource.net/feeds/cas038.mp3.
Teresi, J., Abrams, R. (2001). Prevalence of depression and depression recognition in nursing homes. Social Psychiatry. 36(12). 613-620.
Vander Zanden, J. W., Crandell, T.L., & Crandell, C.H. (2007). Human Development (8th ed.). Boston; Mcgraw-Hill.